Anatomical Systems of The Body
Cardiovascular system
The Cardiovascular system delivers oxygenated blood to the body and carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart. It’s located in the pericardial cavity and is protected by the pericardial membrane. It has four chambers 2 superior: atria and 2 inferior ventricles, which receive blood from veins and pump it back into circulation via arteries and the lungs which oxygenates the blood. Blood is made up of blood plasma 55% and red and white blood cells 45% (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, pp. 697-704).
Nervous system
The organisation of the nervous system includes the: Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous system, Somatic Nervous System, Autonomic Nervous System, Enteric Nervous System & Sympathetic Nervous System. The brain (Central Nervous System) processes and sends information to and from receptors in the body. It’s connected to the body via the spinal nerves (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, pp. 404-470).
Musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeleton, muscles, connective tissues, tendons, and ligaments. It provides structure and protection for organs and movement and functionality. The skeleton is responsible for making red blood cells and providing the body with essential nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, fluoride, magnesium, potassium, and silica, and it is replenished via metabolism and absorption of these nutrients found in nutritious foods and healthy lifestyle, for example vitamin D from the sun is a cofactor for calcium absorption (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 195). The muscles assist in keeping the body warm, aerobic and anaerobic metabolism for movement, regulating the body’s natural processes, for example the smooth muscles of the digestive system, and the cardiac muscles in the heart which are regulated via the body without conscious thought (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 259).
Immunological system
The immunological system protects the body from disease. A non-specific immune response is Inflammation to triggers such as abrasions, tissue damage or other, pathogens, cellular dysfunctions, chemical irritations, and extreme temperatures. The four characteristic signs and symptoms of inflammation are redness, pain, heat, and swelling which are the body’s initiatory responses in the process of repair (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 820).
Immune responses to pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or cancer cells are enacted by cell mediated immune or antibody immune responses. Cell mediated responses directly attack and engulf pathogens via macrophages (phagocytosis). In antibody mediated responses immunoglobulins bind to antigens and block receptors sites from successful reproduction (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 820)
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system drains excess interstitial fluid, transporting dietary lipids and carrying out immune responses. The thymus, lymph nodes and spleen are organs linked to the lymphatic system because of their function and surrounding connective tissue. Primary lymphatic organs such as the red bone marrow in flat bones and the epiphyses of long bones (of adults) and the thymus are the stores where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, pp. 800-811)
Pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow give rise to mature, immunocompetent B cells and T cells which migrate to and become immunocompetent T cells in the thymus. The secondary lymphatic organs and tissues are the sites where most immune responses occur. They include lymph nodes, the spleen, and lymphatic nodules (follicles).
(Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, pp. 800-11).
Reproductive system
The reproductive system is regulated by the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal glands, and the male or female reproductive organs, the testes or ovaries. As the thalamus secretes hormones the reproductive organs create sperm or release eggs; androgen / aldosterone, and oestrogen and progesterone, are the primary hormones which influence that process and create secondary male or female characteristics for example a deep voice and body hair in men, and in females, mammary glands less body hair (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 1066).
Integumentary system
The skin and hair provide a protective layer to the internal parts of the body, and sweat glands and skin blood vessels play a role in regulating body temperature. The skins sense receptors also relay information about the external environment to the nearby musculinic receptors and to the brain. Changes in skin color and texture may indicate homeostatic imbalances in the body. For example, the bluish skin colour associated with hypoxia is a sign of heart failure as well as other disorders. Abnormal skin eruptions are indications of systemic disease (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 163)
Endocrine system
The endocrine and nervous system work together to coordinate the functions of all body systems. The nervous system acts through nerve impulses along axons of neurons. The endocrine system controls body activities by releasing hormones (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 616). Hormones deliver to tissues throughout the body by the blood and it can take seconds to hours or days, but hormones are generally slow acting. Exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts that carry them to different places in the body. Endocrine glands are those where the primary message originates such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland. The thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck are part of the endocrine system; their main job is to communicate to the pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006)
Digestive system
The digestive system provides nutrients to the body through the foods eaten and digested. The mouth begins carbohydrate and lipid digestion, the stomach protein digestion, and in the duodenum the liver and pancreas produce enzymes that carry on digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.
Further along the digestive tract nutrients are absorbed through the cellular lining of the jejunum and ileum via cellular transporters such as the Glut-6 transporter for glucose / insulin, the cellular transport of fatty acids to the lymph, and protein absorption via amino acid transporters. All water soluble, non-water soluble vitamins, and minerals, and essential fatty acids are absorbed before waste is transferred to the large intestine where water and some vitamins are reabsorbed, as well as healthy bacteria formed from insoluble fiber and other fermented foods. Furthermore, the liver stores glucose and produces glycogen which is made into glucose via glycolysis so that the bodies main fuel source has energy when no food is being digested, however when the body transfers to ketosis where glycogen stores are depleted, and fat cells are utilised for energy, this process isn’t the bodies preferred energy source (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006, p. 895) and produces some side effects which may make it harder for the body to function properly.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system oxygenates and removes Co2 from the blood. It also plays a role in the renin angiotensin aldosterone system by producing the hormone ACE which converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2 ultimately increasing systemic blood pressure, renal perfusion pressure and the glomerular filtration rate (Study.Com).
A respiratory control center at the base of your brain controls your breathing. This center sends ongoing signals down your spine and to the muscles involved in breathing. These signals ensure your breathing muscles contract (tighten) and relax regularly. Breathing rate can be affected by physical activity, emotional responses or via allergic responses such as asthma.
The body has sensors in the brain, blood vessels, muscles, and lungs that influence breathing, specifically, sensors in the carotid artery and aorta detect carbon dioxide or oxygen levels. Sensors in the airways detect lung irritants and can trigger sneezing and coughing, or may cause the muscles around the airways in the lungs to contract, which happens in asthma. The alveoli sensors can detect fluid build-up in the lung tissues and trigger rapid, shallow breathing. Sensors in your joints and muscles detect movement of your arms or legs. These sensors may play a role in increasing your breathing rate when you’re physically active (National Heart Lung and Blood Institute).
Urinary system
The Urinary System works to excrete waste from the body’s blood and excess water from the body after the blood is filtered via the Kidneys. The anatomy includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. When the blood is filtered and empty into the collecting ducts to the ureters, the bladder fills with fluid and empties via the urethra. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system play a role in the process of bladder emptying. This system allows the body to detoxify via urinary excretion.
Heather Indiana Rose
Copyright 2019